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IsiZulu Language and Literature

Like all indigenous languages of South Africa, isiZulu was an oral language until it came into contact with the missionaries and western explorers and researchers, mainly anthropologists. These were the first to commit it to the written form. Using the Latin alphabet, early missionary writers, with an immediate task to translate the Bible, were able to avail the first complete isiZulu Bible by 1883.

Before that European travelers like AF Gardiner (1836) and Catherine Barter (1855) had focused their attention on documenting, in English, Zulu culture, traditions, history and customs as they saw them at the time. Even then there was already a concern that these cultures, traditions, histories and customs were disappearing.

Language was not spared, it being the medium by which these cultures, traditions, histories and customs were transmitted and preserved. This approach was to dominate the rest of the 19th and early 20th Century Zulu style of writing, being factual and poised to conserve rather than venturing into creative writing. James Stuart, CH Samuelson, AT Bryant, among others, led the pack in this regard.

IsiZulu orthography

IsiZulu orthography was standardised in the IsiZulu Language Conference of 1905-1907, held in Durban and Pietermaritzburg, with the express aim of achieving such standardisation. Since then, there has been many attempts by the isiZulu Language Board to achieve a more cohesive and standardised orthography. The latest attempt is awaiting publication.

Dictionaries, mainly English-Zulu and Zulu-English Dictionaries emerged very early in the 19th Century. Bishop Colenso’s Zulu-English Dictionary first appeared in 1884, followed by an even more comprehensive one by AT Bryant in 1904. Dictionaries by CM Doke and BW Vilakazi, Sibusiso Nyembezi, Abraham Nkabinde and, quite recently, in 2006, an isiZulu monolingual dictionary edited by Mpumelelo Mbatha have always featured prominently in isiZulu literature. The main role of dictionaries is to preserve words and their meaning.

The missionaries were able to determine the parameters of written Zulu. It was not surprising, therefore, that when the very first text book to be written in isiZulu by a Zulu, Magema Fuze, was published 1922, it focused on Zulu historical ethnography. Magema Fuze’s “Abantu Abamnyama Nalapho Bevela khona”, later translated into English as “Black People and whence they came”, was an earnest attempt by an educated Zulu culture bearer to document Zulu cultural history and genealogy. Fuze had lived through and seen the days of King Cetshwayo and was worried that a lot of Zulu cultural knowledge was disappearing in the beginning of the 20th Century.

It was not until 1930 that a Zulu novel appeared. “Insila kaShaka”, by Dr JL Dube – teacher, politician, preacher, community leader and publisher – is a historic novel portraying the life of Jeqe, King Shaka’s personal attendant. Writing historical novels has remained the most favored style and theme in Zulu literature.

Dube had many other issues on his desk. Besides being an active politician (first President of the ANC in 1912), he established an industrial school for boys (Ohlange Institute) in 1901 and the Ilanga laseNatali newspaper (first published on 10 April 1903).

Dube’s contemporary, if not somewhat younger was Benedict Wallet Vilakazi (1906-1946), According to Encyclopedic Britannica Online, 23 October 2007: ” Vilakazi’s literary output was large. He is best known for his poetry, which critics praise for the beauty and vitality resulting from his astute powers of observation and for his full use of the resources of the Zulu language.”

Vilakazi’s novels include “Noma Nini” set in Groutville and “Nje Nempela”, a historical novel set to depict life and its dangers during the 1906 Bhambatha Uprisings.

In a scene to project preparations for a traditional wedding, Vilakazi writes: “Eza amanye amantombazane azombabaza u Nomcebo, emlungise yonke imvunulo yakhe ethokoza kuthi makazibulale nxa ebona uNomcebo emuhle kangaka,Ayesemthatha amantobazana embeka phambili ukuba awahole, aqala ukuhaya ihubo lawo elaliletha umunyu ngoba amantombazana ayazi ukuthi namhla kuphelile ukuba ayotshakadula nabo azenamise njengabo, nakuba bazomlahla emzini abangazi nokuba uzothokoza yini kuwona.”

Vilakazi, quite impressively, depicts the traditional Zulu wedding as a significant rite of passage to the unknown future in the life of the bride and all concerned. Significantly, Zulu cultural core views the wedding as such; the most important step a living human being can take. In “Nje Nempela”, this wedding takes place in the context of the 1906 Rebellion and the characters like Chakijana ka Gezindaka, who featured prominently in the actual rebellion. Vilakazi brings the scenes of warriors, war songs, dance, traditional dress, traditional religion and the ideas about death.

Vilakazi also wrote poetry, publishing his anthologies, “Inkondlo kaZulu” (1934) and “Amal’ezulu” (1945).

Highlighting the role of language and poetry Vilakazi sees language as being the centre of a people’s soul and that poetry is expressive of a gateway to their universe.

Vilakazi’s poetry reflects his fascination with Zulu life in the days of the Shaka kingdom, with Shaka’s palace of KwaDukuza often featuring in more romantic terms. Still, during Vilakazi’s time Zulu literary writing tended to focus on the historical, re-living the revered past and being hard at work trying to find its place in the ever changing present.

Kenneth Bhengu’s “Ukhabethule” (1952), NNT Ndebele’s “UGubudele Namazimuzimu” (1941), Elliott Zondi’s “Ukufa kuka Shaka” (1960) isiZulu as well as RRR Dlomo’s series on Zulu kings, attempt to deal with a past, characterised by tragedy and unmeasured accomplishments, which passed but could not go away.

The mysteries of the Zulu kingdom (1816-1876), even after its destruction in the aftermath of the Anglo-Zulu War (1879), continue to dominate Zulu thought patterns in literary productivity. It is a revered past, which passed but too quickly, before it could be fully comprehended.

Even literary writers of the late 20th Century, the likes of Mazisi Kunene, DBZ Ntuli and Otty Nxumalo, continue to be dominated by the quest to define the pre-colonial script while seeking to align with contemporary themes of liberation, freedom and societal normality. Outstanding women writers are still a rarity, although Ncamsile Makhambeni and the late Emelda Damane are notable.

Zulu writers in English

Even Zulu intellectuals writing about isiZulu language, culture and history in English have been captured by the pre-colonial script. While RRR Dlomo dismisses the kings of the Zulu Kingdom as malicious despots, his brother, HIE Dlomo, also a 20th Century Zulu intellectual of note, is full of praise for Shaka who he describes as having been a super imbongi (bard) himself. He writes in Ilanga laseNatali on 2 October 1954: “He (Shaka) considered izimbongi very important. they (bards) were the recorders of history, battle, feats and memorable occasions. Shaka himself was no mean linguist.”

In fact, praise singing, in addition to story telling, war talk and music making, was the highest form of Zulu oral literature in pre-colonial times. Sibusiso Nyembezi’s compilation of the praises of pre-colonial Zulu Kings, “Izibongo Zamakhosi” (1958), remains a historical record of note in the Zulu literary and cultural body of knowledge.

IsiZulu language publications in the media are well represented in the Ilanga, UmAfrika, and Isolezwe newspapers, and the Zulu versions of Bona Magazine. IsiZulu Language radio was started by the state in the 1940s and gained ground in the 1960s. IsiZulu language television was introduced in the 1980s. Recently a full-length feature film in IsiZulu, “Yesterday”, was released. Zulu Language commercial music like mbhaqanga, isichathamiya, maskandi and even hip-hop, as well as the non-commercial written choral music, continue to grow and gain acceptance.

In 1994 isiZulu was recognised as one of the eleven official languages. However, like the other eight African official languages, isiZulu continues to meet challenges, which impact on its growth and development.

On 5 November 1955 the Bantu World Newspaper published a statement by the Federal Council of African Teacher Associations (later African Teachers Association of South Africa – ATASA), which read: “We believe most Bantu people do not favour instruction through the medium of vernacular in the higher classes. The Bantu realise that many economic avenues will be shut to them if they fail to master the official languages – English & Afrikaans.”

The teacher federation was opposing the introduction of Bantu Education and the intended use of the vernacular for tuition at primary school level. This attitude of internal opposition to vernacular instruction through African languages persists even today. What makes it powerful is that it is the Africans themselves who voice it most. Until recently Zulu literature, grammar and language were tutored through the medium of English in most South African universities.

While the period of early contact with the missionaries and industrialisation marked the golden age for the growth and development of IsiZulu, especially in the field of terminology and translation, 21st Century South Africa has remarkably introduced the age of stagnation for isiZulu. No Zulu literary works are available in leading bookshops, writers write for school prescription and, quite significantly, it would seem like few, if any, Zulu people of note seek to buy Zulu novels with a view to reading them.

IsiZulu Language classes at universities exist at near empty capacity. Most upward and mobile youths speak the least of it and its scholars spend their time shouting down English and praising Afrikaans, without learning much from its approach of total culture pursued from the 1930s.The scientific and economic status of isiZulu remains very low, and unless something dramatic happens, isiZulu may be limited to the level of Latin in 50 years time, a distant classical language spoken and understood by very few.

In conclusion, isiZulu language is blessed with literary giants who form part of our rich cultural heritage. However its scholarship, worsened by its low economic and scientific status, continues to drive isiZulu in the direction of language archives, and into attainment of some kind of classic language of old. We stand on the verge of the total collapse of the language; and we stand at the door which if opened, can propel isiZulu language and literature to heights it never experienced before.

** Prof Musa Xulu is an ethnomusicologist and cultural researcher, and advisor in the Office of the Premier, KwaZulu Natal. This article is part of a series from readers on the subject of African languages and literature. More articles and comments will be published in future editions.